Left picture is the author, Frank Park/박화경(朴華敬).
Left picture is the author, Frank Park/박화경(朴華敬).
left is the 160KYO New Homo Sapiens found at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,oldest human ancestors(3 fossiles including baby fossiles) in 1997,according to the this author's web Site [
http://frankpark0.tripod.com/frankparkhistorybook/id4.html(human orign)]
By David Brown Washington Post Staff Writer Friday, February 22, 2008; Page A05
We're all pretty much the same except, of course, for the little things that make us different.
This Story
Genetic Mutations Offer Insights on Human Diversity
Genetic Mix Along the Ethnic Divide
Those are the conclusions of three studies published this week that looked at human diversity through the keyhole of the genetic mutations we all carry.
The findings -- the latest dividend from the world's investment in the Human Genome Project in the 1990s -- confirm a broad narrative of human history known from previous biological, archaeological and linguistic studies. But the new research adds an astonishing level of detail and a few new insights that were not previously available.
All three studies support the idea that modern human beings left Central Asia and then fanned out east and west to people the entire planet. The studies also confirm earlier research showing that as a group, Africans have more diverse genes than people of other continents. But the new research further shows that genetic diversity declines steadily the farther one's ancestors traveled from
The studies also show that many seemingly "purebred" ethnic groups have ancestry traceable to more than one continent.
For example, thePakistan. The Yakut people of eastern journal Nature.
All three studies examined single "letter" changes in the 3-billion-letter transcript that makes up each person's genome. Every individual carries tens of thousands of these variations. Some do not change the "words" that are the genes; some change a word but not its meaning; and some change the meaning in a way that can be beneficial or harmful.
Each person's collection of these changes (called "single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs) contributes to his or her individuality. People with a common ancestry, however, tend to have similar collections of SNPs (pronounced "snips").
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"There is no single gene, no single DNA marker, that would distinguish one population from another," Myers said. Instead, he said, "it is a pattern, like a bar code with thousands of lines on it," that allows researchers to tease apart the fine points of relatedness among populations.
He and his colleagues looked at 938 individuals from 51 different populations whose DNA is in a repository in France. The group lead by Rosenberg and Andrew B. Singleton, of the University of Virginia, studied 485 people from the same collection. Each person studied had a clear-cut ethnic identity and in most cases came from a family that had lived in the group's homeland for generations.
With such diverse and abundant starting material, the researchers were able to sketch a picture of ethnicity far more detailed than previously known.
For example, Africa's surviving hunter-gatherers -- two groups of pygmies and the San people of southern Africa who were formerly known as Bushmen -- are closely related to one another and quite distinct on a genetic basis from all other black Africans. The Hazara of Afghanistan and Pakistan and the Uygur of northwestern China are also close genetic relatives, despite living far apart. On the other hand, China's dominant ethnicity, the Han, is actually two genetically distinct groups, the northern and the southern Han.
The research shows that populations' genetic footprints on the planet are deep, sharp and not easily covered over by time.
Both research teams using the French DNA collection found geographic distance from East Africa is a major determinant of genetic differences among groups.
"Each group carried only a subset of the genetic variation from its ancestral population. So there is a loss of genetic diversity with the distance from Africa," Rosenberg said.
One of the more interesting consequences of that pattern is the subject of the third study, also published in Nature.
Carlos D. Bustamante of Cornell University and his colleagues measured SNPs in 20 European Americans and 15 African Americans. They found that the average person carries at least 2,000 SNPs that change the meaning of a genetic "word." However, in the European Americans, a larger proportion of those changes were likely to be unhealthy or unfavorable.
The reasons for this curious finding are not fully known, although there are theories.
The chief explanation is that the ancestors of Europeans (and most white Americans) suffered repeated population "bottlenecks" in which their numbers crashed as result of epidemics, environmental catastrophes and genocide. Each time that happened, the population lost a lot of its genetic diversity simply because a lot of people died.
The survivors, like their ancestors, carried a certain random collection of deleterious SNPs -- genes that caused disease or increased the risk of disease. When the population rebounded, those genes were spread widely as the small number of survivors gave rise to all living descendants.
But if they were potentially bad, why weren't they flushed out by natural selection? That is the mystery.
It may be that in the rebound after the bottleneck, the slight hazardousness of these SNPs did not make much difference. New conditions, perhaps territory free of competitors or a new technology for getting food, allowed people who carried them to flourish just as well as people who did not have them.
It is even possible that some deleterious SNPs were "dragged along" into the future because they were physically close on chromosomes to newly arising SNPs that increased a person's biological fitness.
With time, natural selection will tend to flush the deleterious SNPs out, as it has done -- relatively speaking -- in African populations. But in the case of Europeans, not enough time has passed.
Re-compiled and duplicated by: Frank K. Park (02.22.2,008)
Genetic Mutations Offer Insights on Human Diversity-page2
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/21/AR2008022102739_2.html?wpisrc=newsletter&sid=ST2008022200763(wash.post)
Genetic Mutations Offer Insights on Human Diversity
Genetic Mix Along the Ethnic Divide
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☦⠠‾業楮畭呭牨獥潨摬⤩⡽⤩⤩ਊਊ楷摮睯漮汮慯‽畦据楴湯⤨笊 †瘠牡映㴠搠捯浵湥敧䕴敬敭瑮祂摉∨潆瑯牥摁⤢††慶‽潤畣敭瑮朮瑥汅浥湥獴祂慔乧浡⡥戢摯≹嬩崰††灡数摮桃汩⡤⥦††瑳汹楤灳慬⁹‽戢潬正㬢 †搠捯浵湥敧䕴敬敭瑮祂摉✨祬潣䙳潯整䅲楤牆浡❥⸩牳‽⼧摡⽭摡是潯整䅲晩慲敭栮浴❬††ਊ †ਠ††⼯䐠䵏䤠橮䄠††昨湵瑣潩⡮獩牔汥楬⥸ †笠 †††瘠牡攠㴠搠捯浵湥牣慥整汅浥湥⡴椧牦浡❥㬩 †††攠献祴敬戮牯敤‽〧㬧 †††攠献祴敬洮牡楧‽㬰 †††攠献祴敬搮獩汰祡㴠✠汢捯❫††††瑳汹獣䙳潬瑡㴠✠楲桧❴††††瑳汹敨杩瑨㴠✠㔲瀴❸††††瑳汹癯牥汦睯㴠✠楨摤湥㬧 †††攠献祴敬瀮摡楤杮㴠〠††††瑳汹楷瑤‽㌧〰硰㬧ਊ †††瘠牡椠䉳潬敫䉤䑹浯楡‽畦据楴湯
牨晥⤠ †††笠 †††††瘠牡戠潬正摥潄慭湩‽ਜ਼††††††††愢慮祮灡牯ㅮ〳〰琮楲潰潣≭ਬ††††††††砢硸潰湲硸牴灩摯挮浯ਢ††††††㭝 †††††瘠牡映慬‽慦獬㭥 †††††ਠ††††††潦⡲瘠牡椠〽※㱩汢捯敫䑤浯楡獮氮湥瑧㭨椠⬫⤠ †††††笠 †††††††椠⡦栠敲敳牡档
汢捯敫䑤浯楡獮⁛⁝
㴾〠⤠ †††††††笠 †††††††††映慬‽牴敵††††††††††††††††††††敲畴湲映慬㭧 †††素ਊ††††慶敧䵴瑥䍡湯整瑮㴠映湵瑣潩⡮洠瑥乡浡††††††††††慶敭慴‽潤畣敭瑮朮瑥汅浥湥獴祂慔乧浡⡥洧瑥❡㬩 †††††映牯⠠㵩㬰椠洼瑥獡氮湥瑧㭨椠⬫††††††⁻ †††††††椠⡦洠瑥獡楛⹝敧䅴瑴楲畢整∨慮敭⤢㴠‽敭慴慎敭⤠ †††††††笠ਠ††††††††††敲畴湲洠瑥獡楛⹝敧䅴瑴楲畢整∨潣瑮湥≴㬩ਠ††††††††⁽ †††††素 †††††爠瑥牵慦獬㭥 †††素 †††ਠ††††慶敧䍴浯敭瑮潎敤‽畦据楴湯爨来硥慐瑴牥⥮ †††笠 †††††瘠牡渠摯獥㴠笠㭽 †††††瘠牡渠摯獥⁁‽嵛††††††慶牰晥牥敲乤摯獥楌瑳㴠嬠愧Ⱗ✠❣戧崧†††† †††††⠠畦据楴湯朠瑥潎敤味慨䡴癡䍥浯敭瑮⡳Ɱ瀠瑡整湲††††††††††††††晩⠠慨䍳楨摬潎敤⡳⤩ †††††††笠 †††††††††椠渨琮条慎敭㴠㴽✠䙉䅒䕍⤧ †††††††††笠 †††††††††††爠瑥牵慦獬㭥 †††††††††素 †††††††††映牯⠠慶‽㬰椠㰠渠挮楨摬潎敤敬杮桴※⭩⤫ †††††††††笠 †††††††††††椠⠨档汩乤摯獥楛⹝潮敤祔数㴠㴽㠠
☦⠠慰瑴牥整瑳渨挮楨摬潎敤孳嵩渮摯噥污敵⤩††††††††††††††††††††††††††慶牡慥慎敭㴠瀠瑡整湲攮數⡣档汩乤摯獥楛⹝潮敤慖畬⥥ㅛ㭝 †††††††††††††渠摯獥慛敲乡浡嵥㴠渠††††††††††††††††††††††††汥敳椠渨挮楨摬潎敤孳嵩渮摯呥灹㴽‽⤱ †††††††††††笠 †††††††††††††朠瑥潎敤味慨䡴癡䍥浯敭瑮⡳档汩乤摯獥楛ⱝ瀠瑡整湲㬩 †††††††††††素 †††††††††素 †††††††素 †††††素搨捯浵湥潢祤敲敧偸瑡整湲⤩ †††††映牯⠠慶湩瀠敲敦牲摥潎敤䱳獩⥴ †††††笠 †††††††椠渨摯獥灛敲敦牲摥潎敤䱳獩孴嵩⥝ †††††††笠 †††††††††椠⡦椠味敲汬硩☠…潮敤孳牰晥牥敲乤摯獥楌瑳楛嵝瀮牡湥乴摯慰敲瑮潎敤瀮牡湥乴摯慰敲瑮潎敤⤠ †††††††††笠 †††††††††††渠摯獥⹁異桳渨摯獥灛敲敦牲摥潎敤䱳獩孴嵩⹝慰敲瑮潎敤瀮牡湥乴摯慰敲瑮潎敤瀮牡湥乴摯⥥††††††††††††††††††††汥敳 †††††††††笠 †††††††††††渠摯獥⹁異桳
潮敤孳牰晥牥敲乤摯獥楌瑳楛嵝⤠††††††††††††††††††††††††††††††敲畴湲渠摯獥㭁 †††素 †††ਠ†††† †††瘠牡瀠潲数乲摯‽畮汬††††慶牡慥潎敤‽敧䍴浯敭瑮潎敤⡳渠睥删来硅⡰✠慞敲祔数∽牡慥⡟屜⭷∩‧
㬩ਊ††††潦瘨牡椠㴠〠※‼牡慥潎敤敬杮桴※⭩⤫ †††笠 †††††瘠牡愠㴠瀠牡敳湉⡴敧䍴浯異整卤祴敬愨敲乡摯獥楛⥝眮摩桴㬩 †††††椠⠨㴾㌠〰
☦⠠㴼㐠〰⤩ †††††笠 †††††††瀠潲数乲摯‽牡慥潎敤孳嵩††††††††牢慥㭫 †††††素 †††素ਊ †††瘠牡瀠潲数瑲乹浡‽敧䵴瑥䍡湯整瑮∨牰灯牥祴⤢簠⁼慦獬㭥 †††椠⡦椠味敲汬硩☠…瀨潲数乲摯⥥⤠ †††笠 †††††攠献捲㴠✠愯浤愯⽤湩敪瑣摁椮牦浡瑨汭㬧 †††††瀠潲数乲摯湩敳瑲敂潦敲攨牰灯牥潎敤昮物瑳桃汩⥤††††††††汥敳椠⡦椠味敲汬硩☠…⠡瀠潲数乲摯
⼯匠慬⁰桴摡攠敶瑮潨杵瑨琠敨敲椠潮愠潬慣整汳瑯 †††笠 †††††攠献捲㴠✠愯浤愯⽤湩敪瑣摁椮牦浡瑨汭㬧 †††††攠献祴敬挮獳汆慯⁴‽渧湯❥††††††慶摣癩㴠搠捯浵湥牣慥整汅浥湥⡴搧癩⤧††††††摣癩献祴敬㴠∠楷瑤㩨〳瀰㭸慭杲湩ㄺ瀰⁸畡潴∻††††††摣癩愮灰湥䍤楨摬
㬩 †††††戠椮獮牥䉴晥牯⡥摣癩慬瑳桃汩⥤††††††††汥敳椠⡦℠獩求歯摥祂潄慭湩
潬慣楴湯栮敲
††††††††††慶湩䙪㴠搠捯浵湥牣慥整汅浥湥⡴椧牦浡❥㬩 †††††椠橮⹆瑳汹潢摲牥㴠✠✰††††††湩䙪献祴敬洮牡楧‽㬰 †††††椠橮⹆瑳汹楤灳慬⁹‽戧潬正㬧 †††††椠橮⹆瑳汹獣䙳潬瑡㴠✠潮敮㬧 †††††椠橮⹆瑳汹敨杩瑨㴠✠㔲瀴❸††††††湩䙪献祴敬漮敶晲潬⁷‽栧摩敤❮††††††湩䙪献祴敬瀮摡楤杮㴠〠††††††湩䙪献祴敬眮摩桴㴠✠〳瀰❸††††††湩䙪献捲㴠✠愯浤愯⽤湩敪瑣摁椮牦浡瑨汭㬧ਊ††††††晩
☦⠠℠獩牔汥楬⁸籼⠠琠灹潥獩牔汥楬⁸㴽∠湵敤楦敮≤⤠⤠⤠⼠ 汁瑯敨牴灩摯瀠潲獰 †††††笠 †††††††瘠牡挠楤⁶‽潤畣敭瑮挮敲瑡䕥敬敭瑮✨楤❶㬩 †††††††挠楤瑳汹‽眢摩桴㌺〰硰活牡楧㩮〱硰愠瑵㭯㬢 †††††††挠楤灡数摮桃汩⡤椠橮⁆㬩 †††††††戠椮獮牥䉴晥牯⡥摣癩慬瑳桃汩⥤††††††⁽ †††素 素
潤畣敭瑮椮味敲汬硩⤠㬩紊ਊ⼼捳楲瑰ਾ㰊楤⁶摩∽扴损湯慴湩牥•瑳汹㵥戢捡杫潲湵㩤䐣䑆䍃㭆戠牯敤潢瑴浯ㄺ硰猠汯摩⌠㤳㤳㤳※潰楳楴湯爺汥瑡癩㭥稠椭摮硥㤺㤹㤹㤹㤹椡灭牯慴瑮㸢㰊ⴡ昭牯慮敭∽敳牡档•湯畓浢瑩∽敲畴湲猠慥捲楨⡴∩椠㵤栧慥敤彲敳牡档‧ਾ椼灮瑵琠灹㵥琢硥≴瀠慬散潨摬牥∽敓牡档•楳敺㌽‰慮敭∽敳牡档∲瘠污敵∽㸢㰊湩異⁴祴数∽畢瑴湯•慶畬㵥䜢Ⅿ•湯汃捩㵫猢慥捲楨⡴∩ਾ⼼潦浲ਾ猼祴敬ਾ潦浲栣慥敤彲敳牡档笠 †眠摩桴›ㄹ瀶㭸 †洠牡楧㩮〠愠瑵瀸㭸 †瀠獯瑩潩㩮爠汥瑡癩㭥紊ਊ昊牯⍭敨摡牥獟慥捲湩異⁴††敨杩瑨›〴硰††潦瑮猭穩㩥ㄠ瀴㭸 †氠湩ⵥ敨杩瑨›〴硰††慰摤湩㩧〠㠠硰††潢楳楺杮›潢摲牥戭硯††慢正牧畯摮›䘣䘴䔲㬹 †戠牯敤㩲ㄠ硰猠汯摩⌠䉂㡂㡂††牴湡楳楴湯›慢正牧畯摮挭汯牯㌠〰獭攠獡ⵥ畯ⱴ †††††††挠汯牯㌠〰獭攠獡㭥紊ਊ潦浲栣慥敤彲敳牡档椠灮瑵瑛灹㵥琢硥≴⁝††楷瑤㩨ㄠ〰㬥紊昊牯⍭敨摡牥獟慥捲湩異孴祴数∽整瑸崢昺捯獵笠 †戠牯敤潣潬㩲⌠㉁い㐵††慢正牧畯摮挭汯牯›昣晦††潢桳摡睯›‰瀰⁸㈱硰ⴠ瀴⁸䄣䐲㔰㬴紊ਊਊ潦浲栣慥敤彲敳牡档椠灮瑵瑛灹㵥戢瑵潴≮⁝††潰楳楴湯›扡潳畬整††潴㩰ㄠ硰††楲桧㩴ㄠ硰††灯捡瑩㩹ㄠ††慢正牧畯摮›䐣䑆䍃㭆 †挠汯牯›㐣㌶㌷㬴 †眠摩桴›㈱瀵㭸 †挠牵潳㩲瀠楯瑮牥††敨杩瑨›㠳硰††潢摲牥›潮敮潦浲栣慥敤彲敳牡档椠灮瑵瑛灹㵥琢硥≴㩝潦畣⁾湩異孴祴数✽畢瑴湯崧栺癯牥ਬ潦浲栣慥敤彲敳牡档椠灮瑵瑛灹㵥戧瑵潴❮㩝潨敶††慢正牧畯摮挭汯牯›䄣䌵㕅㬶 †挠汯牯›昣晦潦浲栣慥敤彲敳牡档椠灮瑵瑛灹㵥琢硥≴㩝潦畣⁾湩異孴祴数✽畢瑴湯崧笠 †戠捡杫潲湵ⵤ潣潬㩲⌠㈵䕁䙄††潣潬㩲⌠晦㭦紊ਊ⼼瑳汹㹥ਊ猼牣灩㹴昊湵瑣潩敳牡档瑩⤨†† †⼠ 敤整浲湩湥楶潲浮湥⁴ †瘠牡猠慥捲彨湥⁶ †椠氨捹獯慟彤睷彷敳癲牥椮摮硥晏∨瀮⤢㸠ⴠ⤱笠 †††敳牡档敟癮㴠✠瑨灴⼺猯慥捲㕨⸱摰氮捹獯挮浯愯✯††⁽汥敳椠氨捹獯慟彤睷彷敳癲牥椮摮硥晏∨焮⤢㸠ⴠ⤱笠 †††敳牡档敟癮㴠✠瑨灴⼺猯慥捲㕨⸱慱氮捹獯挮浯愯✯††⁽汥敳笠 †††敳牡档敟癮㴠✠瑨灴⼺猯慥捲㕨⸱祬潣潣⽭⽡㬧 †素ਊ慶敳牡档瑟牥‽湥潣敤剕䍉浯潰敮瑮搨捯浵湥敳牡档献慥捲㉨瘮污敵慶敳牡档畟汲㴠猠慥捲彨湥⭶敳牡档瑟牥㭭眊湩潤灯湥猨慥捲彨牵⥬爊瑥牵慦獬⼼捳楲瑰ⴭਾ猼祴敬ਾ††愮䍤湥整䍲慬獳浻牡楧㩮‰畡潴⼼瑳汹㹥㰊楤⁶摩∽扴慟≤挠慬獳∽摡敃瑮牥汃獡≳猠祴敬∽楤灳慬㩹汢捯Ⅻ浩潰瑲湡㭴漠敶晲潬㩷楨摤湥※楷瑤㩨ㄹ瀶㭸㸢ਊ搼癩椠㵤愢彤潣瑮楡敮≲猠祴敬∽楤灳慬㩹汢捯Ⅻ浩潰瑲湡㭴映潬瑡氺晥㭴眠摩桴㜺㠲硰∠ਾ猼牣灩⁴祴数∽整瑸樯癡獡牣灩≴ਾ晩⠠祴数景氠捹獯慟㴡‽產摮晥湩摥•☦∠敬摡牥潢牡≤椠祬潣彳摡
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